I am considering building a website that covers a wide range of topics, from the basic concept of extracellular vesicles (exosomes) to their biological roles, technical aspects, applications, and the latest trends in research.
- Prologue: Introduction
- Chapter 1: Overview of Extracellular Vesicles
- Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of Extracellular Vesicles
- Chapter 3: Generation and Release of Extracellular Vesicles
- Uptake of Extracellular Vesicles and their Effects on Target Cells
- Isolation Techniques for Extracellular Vesicles
- Detection and Characterization of Extracellular Vesicles
- Pathophysiology of Extracellular Vesicles
- Clinical Applications of Extracellular Vesicles
- Future Perspectives and Challenges in Extracellular Vesicle Research
- Conference/Workshop Reports
Prologue: Introduction
Chapter 1: Overview of Extracellular Vesicles
This section provides a concise explanation of exosomes and extracellular vesicles.
Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of Extracellular Vesicles
Classification of Extracellular Vesicles
Biological Properties of Extracellular Vesicles
Chapter 3: Generation and Release of Extracellular Vesicles
The biogenesis of exosomes/extracellular vesicles (EVs) heavily relies on the interactions between intracellular structures such as endosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, and Golgi apparatus. Each of these structures plays a specific role in the process. Let’s explore each item in detail.
- Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): The ER is the site where protein synthesis, folding, and modifications occur within the cell. Proteins that are synthesized and modified here are transported to the Golgi apparatus through coat protein II vesicles.
- Golgi Apparatus: The Golgi apparatus further modifies proteins received from the endoplasmic reticulum. The modified proteins are then packaged into vesicles and transported to specific destinations within the cell. Some proteins are directed to endosomes, contributing to the biogenesis of exosomes.
- Endosomes: Endosomes not only take up substances from the extracellular environment through endocytosis but also receive proteins from the Golgi apparatus. As endosomes mature, they can transform into multivesicular bodies (MVBs) where intraluminal vesicles (ILVs) are formed. These ILVs may contain specific proteins received from the Golgi apparatus and eventually become exosomes. For detailed explanations, refer to here.
- Release of Extracellular Vesicles: When multivesicular bodies fuse with the cell membrane, exosomes are released into the extracellular space. These exosomes play critical roles in intercellular communication and transport a diverse range of proteins, lipids, and RNA.
Therefore, the biogenesis of exosomes is supported by intricate interactions between intracellular structures such as the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, and endosomes. Now, let’s delve into each topic in more detail.
Generation in the Endoplasmic Reticulum and Golgi Apparatus
Transportation in Endosomes
Multivesicular Bodies and Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress
Contents of Extracellular Vesicles
Extracellular vesicles (exosomes) have the ability to transport various biological substances from the originating cells, and their cargo can vary significantly depending on the cell type, state, and the environment in which the cells exist.
The contents of EVs include:
Proteins
Extracellular vesicles contain a wide range of proteins, including those involved in cell signaling, immune response, and cell proliferation, regulating various biological processes.
Lipids
The membrane of extracellular vesicles is mainly composed of phospholipids. However, other lipid components are also present and can function as signals in intercellular communication.
RNA
Extracellular vesicles have the ability to carry various types of RNA, including messenger RNA (mRNA), microRNA (miRNA), and long non-coding RNA (lncRNA). When these RNA molecules are taken up by recipient cells, they can alter protein synthesis and gene expression in those cells.
DNA
Extracellular vesicles have also been reported to contain fragments of the cell’s genomic DNA or mitochondrial DNA.
By transporting these cargo, extracellular vesicles play a crucial role in regulating intercellular communication. The content of EVs can change in various physiological and pathological conditions, allowing them to convey specific messages from one cell to another.
Transport and Release to the Cell Membrane
The importance of lipids in the lipid bilayer in the release and uptake of EVs has also been reported.
There is also a video showing the actual secretion of EVs.
Uptake of Extracellular Vesicles and their Effects on Target Cells
Mechanisms of Uptake by Recipient Cells
Information Transfer by Extracellular Vesicles
Immunomodulation by Extracellular Vesicles
Isolation Techniques for Extracellular Vesicles
Overview of Isolation Techniques
Ultracentrifugation
Immunoprecipitation
Size-Exclusion Chromatography
Tangential Flow Filtration
Automatic EV Extraction Device: Exodus
Detection and Characterization of Extracellular Vesicles
Detection by Electron Microscopy
Nano Tracking Analysis
Flow Cytometry
Pathophysiology of Extracellular Vesicles
Immunity and extracellular vesicles
Tumor Microenvironment and Metastasis
Inflammation and Infection
Neurodegenerative Diseases
Cardiovascular Diseases
Clinical Applications of Extracellular Vesicles
Extracellular Vesicles as Diagnostic Markers
Therapeutic Strategies Using Extracellular Vesicles
Spinal Cord Injury
Spinal cord injury, often caused by accidents or sports injuries, can lead to loss of motor and sensory functions due to damage to nerve cells, inflammation, and bleeding. Current treatments have limited potential for complete recovery, necessitating the development of new therapeutic approaches. Extracellular vesicles have gained attention as a new treatment strategy in the field of regenerative medicine and are also expected to contribute to the development of therapies for spinal cord injuries.
The use of extracellular vesicles for the treatment of spinal cord injuries is expected to have the following effects:
- Neuroprotection: Extracellular vesicles contain substances with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, which have been reported to protect damaged nerve cells and inhibit inflammation and apoptosis (cell death).
- Neuronal Regeneration Promotion: Extracellular vesicles contain growth factors and cytokines that promote the growth and differentiation of nerve cells. These substances are expected to promote the regeneration of damaged nerve cells and contribute to the recovery of spinal cord injuries.
- Improvement of Transplanted Cell Efficacy: Extracellular vesicles have been reported to enhance the efficacy of transplanted cells (such as stem cells and neural precursor cells). They can improve the survival rate of transplanted cells and enhance their therapeutic effects. Additionally, extracellular vesicles promote information transfer between the transplanted cells and recipient cells, creating an environment that facilitates the functionality of the transplanted cells.
- Promotion of Angiogenesis: Extracellular vesicles also contain substances that promote angiogenesis (blood vessel formation). Angiogenesis is expected to improve nutrient and oxygen supply to the damaged site and support the recovery of neural tissues.
- In order to utilize these effects, a treatment using extracellular vesicles extracted from the patient’s own stem cells is being developed. In this therapy, extracellular vesicles are directly injected into the site of spinal cord injury, with expected effects such as neuroprotection, promotion of neuronal regeneration, and promotion of angiogenesis.
Human MSC-EVs
